Long Descriptions for Chapter Five

Figure 5.2. Features of a Human Person System

An outline of a human body surrounded by descriptions of their features and functions.

• Boundary: Skin
  
• Components: Cells, tissues, organs, subsystems, plus heat energy, kinetic energy, and chemical potential energy.
  
• Interactions: Cellular respiration, circulation, digestion (internal interactions), walking, and breathing (external interactions).
  
• Inputs/outputs: Food (matter & energy input), air (matter input), CO2 and urine (matter outputs), and heat energy (energy output).
  
• Properties: Temperature, health, personality, and size.

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Figure 5.3. Systems Within Systems Within Systems

From left to right. Part of Earth is showing with a human figure superimposed. There are lines emanating from the human, each with the name of a system: Immune, Skeletal, Circulatory, Digestive, and Nervous. The circulatory line points to another human figure with the circulatory system showing in the body. From this figure there are lines emanating with the words Veins, Arteries, Heart, Blood, and Plasma. The Heart line leads to a cross section of a heart showing the arteries, veins, valves, and chambers of the heart. From the heart lines emanate that read Valve, Muscle, and Nerve. Each of these lines leads to a drawing of the type of cell that makes up these tissues. The valve cell is long and narrow; it appears smooth with one large nucleus and various organelles. The muscle cell is long and narrow and also branched. It has several bands across the width; there appears to be a nucleus and organelles. The nerve cell is fibrous-looking with one side round with a nucleus, organelles, and tiny branch-like appendages coming off the circumference of the cell. There is also a tail connected to the round part with more branch-like appendages coming off the end.

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Figure 5.4. Satellite View of California

There are clouds and the ocean on the left. The central valley is clearly visible surrounded by mountains that are green with vegetation. The mountains to the east of the valley also have snow on them.

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Figure 5.5. Temperature Changes When Constantly Heating Ice

This is a line graph of temperature versus time as ice is heated. The y-axis is labeled Temperature (°C) and is marked in 20-degree increments beginning with -20 and ending at 140 degrees centigrade. The x-axis is labeled as Time with no markers. The graph labels the state of the matter as it is heated from -20 to 140. The matter begins as all solid ice at -20. At zero degrees it is a mix of ice and water. At this point on the graph are the words Solid/liquid equilibrium (heat goes into phase change). As the matter is heated further it becomes liquid water until it reaches 100 degrees centigrade. During this phase are the words all liquid (heat goes into temperature change). At 100 degrees the matter is water and steam and the graph reads liquid/gas equilibrium (heat goes into phase change). As the matter is heated further it all becomes a gas as steam and the graphs reads all gas (heat goes into temperature change).

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Figure 5.6. Equations Representing State Changes in Water

This diagram shows the Energy Transfers and Phase Changes of Water:

• Evaporation: Water (Liquid) + Energy, with arrows pointing to Water (Gas).
  
• Condensation: Water (gas) with arrows pointing to Water (liquid) + Energy.
  
• Melting: Water (solid) + Energy, with arrows pointing to Water (Liquid)
  
• Freezing: Water (Liquid), with arrows pointing to Water (solid) + Energy

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Figure 5.7. California Map Showing 16 Different Climate Zones

An outline map of California that shows the location of 16 different climate zones. There is an expanded view of the Los Angeles area in order to show the many different climate zones located in that area. There is no key to describe each numbered climate zone. The scale on the map is 1.25 inches equals 200 miles.

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Figure 5.8. Profile of Annual Rainfall Across California Heading East from San Luis Obispo

This is a double line graph showing precipitation in blue and elevation in red. On the X-axis is Longitude in degrees with West to the left and East to the right. The markers on the x-axis are labeled from -120.6 on the left to 118.2 on the right. They are changing in 0.6 degree increments. The y-axis is labeled Precipitation in inches. The markers on the left hand y-axis range from zero at the bottom to six inches at the top of the graph. The right hand y-axis is labeled Elevation in feet. The markers are labeled from zero on the bottom to 4000 at the top of the graph. Generally, the amount of precipitation coincides with the elevation. For example, at -118.8 Longitude it shows that precipitation is 4.5 inches and the elevation is about 3000 feet. At -120.6 longitude, and about 250 feet elevation, the precipitation is about one inch.

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Figure 5.9. Profile of Annual Rainfall Across California Passing through Chico

The same double line graph from a different location. This is a double-line graph showing precipitation in blue and elevation in red. On the X-axis is Longitude in degrees with West to the left and East to the right. The markers on the x-axis are labeled from -123.6 on the left to 120.4 on the right. They are increasing in 0.8 degree increments. The left hand y-axis is labeled Precipitation in inches. The markers on the left hand y-axis range from zero at the bottom to 30 inches at the top of the graph. The right hand y-axis is labeled Elevation in feet. The markers are labeled from zero on the bottom to 6000 at the top of the graph. Generally, the amount of precipitation coincides with the elevation until 121.2 degrees longitude. At that point, even though the elevation decreases, the precipitation increases.

For example, at -122 Longitude it shows that precipitation is between three and four inches and the elevation is close to 0. At -120.5 longitude, and about 4500 feet elevation, the precipitation is about 7.5 inches.

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Figure 5.10. Map of Average Annual Precipitation in California

The information Average Annual Precipitation in California (with shaded relief) is shown with color coding as follows:

Precipitation in Inches

• Pink: 180.1-200.0
• Purple: 140.1-180.0
• Royal Blue: 120.1-140.0
• Sky Blue: 100.1-120.0
• Aqua Blue: 80.1-100.0
• Lime Blue: 70.1-80.0
• Baby Blue: 60-1.70.0
• Green: 50.1-60.0
• Lime green: 40.1-50.0
• Yellow green:35.1-40.0
• Yellow:  30.1-35.0
• Gold yellow: 25.1-30.0
• Yellow: 20.1-25
• Yellow: 15.1-20.0
• Buff: 10.1-15.0
• Brown: 5.1-10
• Red: Less than 5.0

There is a map scale indicating that about three-fourths of an inch represents 100 miles.

Most of inland Southern California gets less than five inches of precipitation but the map also reveals that there are pockets of much heavier precipitation. Sierra Nevada areas get about 40-60 inches. The central valley appears to receive less than 15 inches per year. The northern coast of California appears to get the same amount as the Sierras, 40-60 inches, while the southern coast of California gets less than 15 inches. The northeast corner of the state gets less than 25 inches. The region with the most precipitation in California are the mountains between Chico and Lake Tahoe, around Mount Shasta, and the very northern coast to the Oregon border, with each getting about 100-120 inches annually with pockets of more than 120 inches scattered throughout.

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Figure 5.11. Effect of Water Filtration on Typhoid Deaths in Pittsburgh

This is a histogram titled Water Filtration Saves Lives in Pittsburgh. The y-axis is labeled Number of Deaths from Typhoid, with markers for every 100 people and ranging from zero to 600. The x-axis is labeled Year, and bars are in one-year increments ranging from 1900 to 1914. The bars from 1900 to 1906 are grouped with a note that reads Raw river water only. The bar for 1900 is about 460 deaths, 1901 about 400, 1902 about 460, 1903, about 470, 1904 about 500, 1905 about 360. The bar for 1907 has a note that reads First filter starts and it shows about 420 deaths. The bar for 1908 shows about 150 deaths. The bar for 1909 has a note that reads All water filtered and shows about 50 deaths, 1910 shows about 50 deaths, 1911 about 40 deaths, 1912 shows about 25 deaths, 1913 shows about 30 deaths, and 1914 shows about 25 deaths from Typhoid in Pittsburgh.

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Figure 5.12. Count Rumford’s Energy Conversion Experiment

A horse is connected to a mechanism that turns a metal borer that causes the borer to grind into the iron. The borer and grinder are under water. The friction from the borer eventually causes the water to boil as the horse trots around in a circle.

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Figure 5.13. Air Mass Interactions

Heading of figure is Key Concepts to know about weather

Graphic showing the four important components of a model of weather that describes the interaction of air masses.

Four images from left to right:

• Interesting weather happens when two air masses collide (two clouds with arrows pointing toward each other).
• When two air masses collide, one goes up (two clouds that have bumped into one another, one with arrow pointing up and to the left).
• When an air mass goes up, it cools (arrow up and to the left equals a cloud with a thermometer that reads very low).
• Water condenses more easily in cold air. As air cools, it rains/snows/etc. (cloud has raindrops coming out of it with the same low thermometer).

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Figure 5.14. Average Annual Temperatures

World map color-coded to indicate average annual temperature. There is a key to color-coding at the bottom of the map labeled Temperature in Degrees Celsius. The range of temperatures is from -45 to 30. The map reveals that much of the far northern hemisphere has an average temperature of about -45 including northern Alaska, Northern Canada, Greenland, and much of northern Asia. The United States and other regions in its same latitude average about 0 degrees Celsius. This includes much of Europe and southeast Asia. Much of the Southern Hemisphere average 30 degrees Celsius, including most of South America Most of Africa, India, and Australia.

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Figure 5.15. Earth-Sun System Scale

This illustration shows how sunlight hits the Earth. At the Equator, the Sun hits the Earth flat, and at the poles the Sun hits the Earth more obliquely and spread out. This is showing why the Sun is more intense at the Equator than at the poles. It is also showing the scale of the Sun compared to Earth. With the Sun depicted as a tiny dot, the Earth is too small to be seen at this scale. Therefore, the illustration has zoomed into the Earth to show the way sunlight reaches different parts of the Earth.

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Figure 5.16. Angle of the Sun’s Rays Affect Intensity

Sun Angle varies with latitude. There is a partial sphere representing the Earth on the right side of the diagram. The diagram show the sun’s rays hitting the Earth near the equator at about 90 degrees. The diagram also shows the sun’s rays hitting the Earth near the poles at about a 45-degree angle. A note near the poles reads: Same-size patch of land receives a smaller proportion of the Sun’s energy.

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Figure 5.17. Earth’s Energy Flows

Earth’s Energy Flows: Model 1

1. Light energy from the Sun radiates into the Earth System (Picture of the Sun with an arrow pointing to Earth’s surface). 2. Absorption of light energy heats Earth's surface: ocean and land. 3. Earth's surface heats the atmosphere by conduction and convection. Conduction is represented by a horizontal, double-headed arrow on the surface, Convection is represented by two recirculating arrows making a circle.  4: Convection (winds and ocean currents) move thermal energy within the Earth system from the equator towards the poles. Convection is again represented with two recirculating arrows making a circle within the surface of the Earth.

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Figure 5.18. Temperature and Rainfall Vary Systematically with Latitude

This is a double-line graph showing Average Temperature (in degrees Celsius) on the left hand y-axis with a range of zero to 25 in five-degree increments.  Average Precipitation in millimeters is shown on the right hand y-axis with a range of zero to 2000 mm in increments of 500. The x-axis is labeled Latitude in degrees north with a range of -90 to 90 in increments of 30 degrees. Temperature is in red and is a normal distribution with the highest temperature near zero degrees latitude. Average precipitation is shown in blue. Precipitation is also highest at zero degrees and lowest at the extremes but there is a dip at about -30 and 30 degrees.

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Figure 5.19. Thermal Energy and Wind Convection Cells

Diagram of Earth; North, Central and South America are visible alone with the North Pole. This diagram shows convection cells that coincide with bands of latitude. There is one at the north pole with cold air circulating clockwise, one along the west coast of North America with air circulating counterclockwise warm air moving north and cold air moving south, one in the Pacific at the same latitude as Central America with air circulating clockwise, warm air is moving south and cold air is moving north, another in the Pacific Ocean along the same latitude as the northern part of South America with air circulating counterclockwise, warm air moving north and cold air moving south, and the last cell shown in the Pacific Ocean along the same latitude as the southern part of South America with air circulating clockwise, and warm air is moving south and cold air is moving north. In the North Pole band the diagram reads Polar Easterlies with blue arrows (cold air) swooping down and to the left. Just under that on top of North America the diagram reads Polar front Westerlies with red arrows (warm air) swooping up and to the right. There is a dotted latitude indicated by 30 degrees that extends through the southern tip of Baja California and through the middle of Mexico. Below that the diagram reads NE trade winds over Central America and the Caribbean with red arrows (warm air) swooping down and to the left. Bordering that band is the Equator with the words Equatorial Low and the latitude indicated as zero degrees. In the band just under that, the diagram reads SE trade winds with red arrows (warm air) swooping up and to the left. The diagram then shows four more convection cells to the right of these descriptions. The first cell is just to the east of North America and moves clockwise with cold air moving south and warm air moving north. The cell between zero degrees and 30 degrees latitude moves counterclockwise with cold air moving north and warm air moving south. The cell below that to the east of Brazil moves clockwise with cold air moving south and warm air moving north. The convection cell under that moves counterclockwise with cold air moving north and warm air moving south.

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Figure 5.20. Genetic Versus Environmental Traits

Graphic of student poster that displays the continuum of traits from genetics to the environment. This poster displays the concepts that some traits are essentially all genetic, and some are mostly environmental, but ultimately that most traits are strongly influenced both by genes and the environment.  

Three examples of the combination of genetics and environment that students posted include Siamese coat color, good hunter, and skin cancer.

The next area of the poster includes various traits that students posted between the continuum of genetic and nongenetic. Traits on this continuum fall under the four areas of hard to say, a combination, genetics, and nongenetics.

On the genetic side of the continuum, students posted black coat, male, cross-eyed, and large build.

In the middle of the continuum between genetic and nongenetic, students posted includes born sterile and fear of dogs.

On the nongenetic side of the continuum, students posted eye problem from injury, neutered, has worms, FIV positive, and born sterile.

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Figure 5.21. Incorrect and Correct Ideas about Genes and Traits

There are four boxes in a two by two arrangement. Title of figure is Ideas about Genes & Traits.

In the upper left box: Incorrect: Traits are the same as features. Trait = Feature is marked out by a large x in the background of this box.

In the upper right box: Correct: Traits are specific variants of features. Feature = primary fur color. Trait = black,

(Gene X, Gene Y, Gene Z all lead to Trait 1)

In the lower left box: Incorrect: Each genetic trait is determined by the alleles for a single gene. Gene x with an arrow to Trait 1.the alleles for a single gene only influence one trait (Gene X leads to Trait 1). There is a large X in the background of this box.

In the lower right box: Correct:  Genetic traits are usually determined by the alleles of multiple genes (Gene X leads to Traits 1, 2, and 3).

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Figure 5.22. Temperature Changes Over Time

Title of figure is Global Mean Estimates based on Land and Ocean Data, and is a Double Graph showing Global Land-Ocean Temperature Index

The y-axis is labeled Temperature Anomaly in degrees Celsius. The range is from -0.4 to 0.6 in increments of 0.2. The x-axis is labeled in years beginning with 1880 to 2000 in increments of 20 years. There is a key in the graph indicating the black line with a small square on it represents the Annual Mean and the red line indicates the 5-year Running Mean, or Lowess Smoothing. The two lines follow an overall pattern of starting low in 1880 at -0.2, dipping to the lowest point about 1910 at about -0.5l, rising to a spike at about 1945 of 0.1, and then rising to the highest point at 2000 of 0.6.

In figure 5.22, there is also a world map of temperature change. The title is How much has average temperature changed? 2000 to 2016 versus 1900 to 1999.

This map is color-coded with a key under the map with cooler colors (purple, blues and white) to the left of the key and warmer colors (yellow, orange and red) to the right of the key. The key is titled Average temperature difference. To the right of the key reads 2000 to 2014 cooler by 4 degrees Celsius, and to the left 2000 to 2016 warmer by 4 degrees Celsius. The colors on the map indicate the entire world is getting warmer with the Northern Hemisphere having the most change, including a small spot in Canada’s Northwest Passage extending to the north of Greenland that has experienced even greater temperature change for the warmer. It appears areas of Brazil and Northwest Africa have also experience greater temperature change along with much of northern Europe and northern Asia.

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Figure 5.23. Global Climate Outputs

This is a triple-line graph. The y-axis is labeled Temperature anomaly in degrees Celsius. The range is from zero to 1.0 in increments of 0.5. The x-axis does not have a label but it is marked in years from 1900 to 2000 in 50-year increments. There is a key in the graph. A black line represents Observations. A thick blue line represents Models using only natural changes. A thick pink line represents Models using both natural changes and human-induced changes. The black line starts below zero at 1900, it rides slowly until about 1945 where it hits a peak and then drops down until around 1952 where it begins a steady rise until 2000 where the graph ends. The pink line showing both natural and human-induced changes follows the black line closely. The blue line showing only natural changes roughly follows the black line for only a short time between 1900 and around 1925, then the blue line continues almost horizontally to 2000. There is a note to the right of the graph that reads Natural changes alone do not explain the changes in global average temperature.

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Figure 5.24. Global Warming Cause-and-Effect

Four graphs with similar trends and patterns illustrate global warming causes and effects. The x-axis on each graph is the same: it is labeled year and extends from 1850 to 2000 in 50-year increments.

1. Title: Globally averaged combined land and ocean surface temperature anomaly.
   
   The y-axis is labeled degrees Celsius and ranges from -1 to 0.4 in 0.2 increments. This graph shows almost yearly ups and downs of combined temperature change for land and ocean. At around 1900, the graph shows -0.6 degrees Celsius with cyclical ups and downs between -0.6 and -0.8 until around 1880 when there is a small spike to about -0.2, then the cyclical ups and downs continue between -0.6 and -0.8 until around 1930 when it appears to begin to rise regularly. Around 1930, the temperature change is about -0.4, spiking around 1950 to about -0.2 degrees change. From there the data shows an increase to 2000 to about 0.2 degrees Celsius but still showing yearly fluctuations.
   
   
2. Title: Globally averaged sea level change.
   
   The y-axis is labeled in meters and ranges from -0.2 0.1 in 0.05 increments. The data in this graph does not begin until 1900. Although this graph appears to have more than one line there is no key to differentiate between the different data. All lines tend to coincide and show a moderate rise from 1900 to 2000. For 1900, the sea level change is about -0.15, at around 1950 the sea level change is about -0.1 meter, and at 2000 the sea level change is about 0.05.
   
   
3. Title: Globally averaged greenhouse gas concentrations.
   
   This graph shows information for three chemicals. The left hand y-axis is labeled CO2 in parts per million (ppm) and ranges from 280 to 400; The first right hand y-axis is labeled CH4 in parts per billion (ppb). The second right-hand y-axis in labeled N2O in parts per billion (ppb). Each of these lines is color-coded and all three follow roughly the same pattern, slowly rising from around 1900 until around 1980 when CO2 takes a sharp upturn and CH4 and N2O are still rising but only moderately.
   
   
4. Title: Global anthropogenic CO2 emissions (Quantitative information of CH4 and N2O emission time series from 1850 to 1970 is limited.)
   
   The y-axis is labeled GtCO2 per year and ranges from zero to 40 in increments of five. Two types of origin of emissions is graphed on the same axes: Fossil fuels, cement, and flaring are colored grey, and Forestry and other land use are colored light brownish-yellow. The Forestry and other land use data remain fairly low and steady across the years but the fossil fuel emissions begin to increase around 1900 (= five) and around 1950 take a sharp upturn to 2000 when emissions reached about 38. There is also another graph showing Cumulative CO2 emissions on the right side of graph D. It also compares emissions for Forestry and other land use to emissions from Fossil Fuels, cement and flaring using the same colors but compare the cumulative CO2 emission from 1750 to 1970 to the period of 1750 to 2011. From 1750 to 1970, Forestry and other land use shows 500 GTCO2 with another 400 GTCO2 from fossil fuels for a total of about 900. For the period of 1750 to 2011, that graph shows about 750 GTCO2 for Forestry and other land use with another 1250 for fossil fuels, cement, and flaring, for a total of about 2000 GTCO2.

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Figure 5.26. A River Environment

Title is River Environment 200 years ago represented by a line drawing. A river flows through a valley appearing to come from a mountain in the distance with melting snow forming a waterfall. A fish and a frog are shown in the river. There is a carcass of a partially eaten deer on the banks of the river along with large rocks and vegetation, including ferns and one full-grown tree and one sapling. Clouds hang in the sky.

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Figure 5.27. Different Models of Gases

This picture show four different models of gases. From the left there is a physical model that shows a wire basket of ping pong balls in two frames. The first one shows the balls being blown by a blow dryer on low and the second frame shows the ball being blown by the blow dryer on high. The balls are more active in the second frame. The second set of two frames shows a Kinesthetic Model that shows a group of five children milling about running into one another. This is followed by a series of stick figure drawings showing the same thing. The third model is a Pictorial Model. A student has drawn a flask topped by a balloon and shows it deflated and then inflated. The fourth model is a stop-motion animation of gas expanding and lifting the lid of a container.

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Figure 5.28. River Environment Now

The same river environment from figure 5.26 in the present day. The river is still present but has widened. The previous snowcapped mountain is small but still has a waterfall in the far distance. The full-grown tree from 200 years ago is shown fallen and the sapling is now full grown. The carcass has disappeared. The fish is still shown in the river with the addition of a turtle, a dragonfly, and some lizards on the shore. There appears to be more vegetation now compared with 200 years ago, including ferns and more trees.

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Figure 5.29. Classroom Model of a Glucose Molecule

Photograph of a student model of glucose using different-colored sticky notes. There are six blue carbon atoms, six pink oxygen atoms, and 12 yellow hydrogen atoms.

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Figure 5.30. Student Diagram of Changes in Potential Energy

Piece of notebook paper. Student name Perry is in the upper right corner. Three panels are drawn. The first panel shows a sling-shot pulled back in preparation to shoot. The panel reads ready? set? lots of EPE, which stands for elastic potential energy, pointing to the elastic parts and some GPE, which stands for gravitational potential energy, pointing to the object being shot. The second panel shows the sling-shot just after the object is shot. The panel reads GO!! No EPE left while pointing to the pouch, more GPE while pointing to the object in mid-flight and most GPE as the object reaches the apex of its flight. This drawing is continued into the third panel that shows the object landing. The object continues its flight and falling to the ground, which is labeled less GPE as it nears the ground, and no GPE left as it hits the ground.

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Figure 5.31. Two Different Categories of Chemical Reactions

There are two columns. The First column Reads Energy-Releasing Actions; Total Energy of Reactants is greater than Total Energy of Products; and under that a drawing of a wood-burning campfire. The second column reads Energy-Absorbing Actions, then Total Energy of Reactants is less than total energy of products, and underneath that is an image of two frozen ice packs.

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Figure 5.32. System Model to Illustrate Flows of Matter and Energy

A drawing of a deer eating grass with arrows indicating the flow of different matter and energy in the system. Sunlight has a red arrow down to the grass. The deer has a red arrow pointing out of the system labeled Thermal Energy. The grass has a red arrow pointing toward the deer labeled CPE. There is a black arrow pointing from the grass to the deer labeled CO2, and another black arrow pointing from the deer to the grass labeled O2. There is a black arrow pointing to the grass labeled H2O, and another black arrow point to the grass labeled CO2.

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Figure 5.33. Classic Rock Cycle Diagram

Three rectangles in a circle represented by bi-directional arrows connecting each one. In the upper left is Igneous Rocks, the upper right is Sedimentary Rocks, and the bottom middle is Metamorphic Rocks. From Igneous Rock to Sedimentary Rocks is an arrow labeled Weathering and erosion. From Sedimentary Rocks to Igneous rocks is an arrow labeled Melting. From Sedimentary Rocks to Metamorphic Rocks is an arrow labeled Heating and Pressure. From Metamorphic Rocks to Sedimentary Rocks is an arrow labeled Weathering and erosion. From Metamorphic Rocks to Igneous Rocks is an arrow labeled Melting. From Igneous to Metamorphic is an arrow labeled Heating and Pressure.

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Figure 5.34. Fossil Evidence of Continental Drift

This is a diagram of Pangaea—a supercontinent that existed millions of years ago. This is where all of the continents of today were once connected and fit together like a puzzle. This diagram shows the fossil remains of the Cynognathus, a Triassic land reptile approximately three meters long, are found across the middle of South American and into the middle of Africa where the continents were once joined. There are fossils of the Triassic land reptile Lystrosaurus are found in India, Antarctica, and Africa where those three continents were once joined. Fossil remains of the freshwater reptile Mesosaurus are found in southern South America and southern Africa where those two continents were once joined. Fossils of the fern Glossopteris, found in all of the southern continents, show that they were once joined.

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Figure 5.35. Plate Motions Shape Landforms and Seafloor Features

This diagram shows a cross section of the Earth’s surface illustrating different types of plate motion. From left to right, plates converge on one another. The denser plate sinks down under the less dense plate, forming a deep sea trench where the two plates converge. This convergence also forms a mountain range with folded layers to the right of the trench. Further to the right two plates diverge forming a mid-ocean ridge.

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Figure 5.36. Ecosystem Cycles of Matter and Flows of Energy

Simplified diagram of an ecosystem. On the top is the Sun with thin red arrows pointing to grass and apple tree. Thin black arrows show H2O and CO2 enter and leave the system. The grass and the apple tree both give off CO2 and receive CO2. The sheep, cougar, and bear all give off CO2. The grass, apple tree, buzzard, sheep, cougar, and bear all give off energy, mostly thermal energy (shown with a thin wavy arrow pointing out of the system.) The sheep and the bear are connected to the grass with a thick red arrow that shows the flow of food matter with its stored energy. Sheep is connected to the cougar and the buzzard by the thick red arrow. The bear is connected to the apple tree with the thick red arrow.

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Figure 5.37. Landslides and Slow Processes Both Contribute to Erosion

A line graph from a computer simulation. The y-axis is labeled Mass of Sediment Eroded, tons. It ranges from zero to 35,000 in 5,000 ton increments. The x-axis is labeled Year in Simulation and ranges from zero to 9,000 in 1,000-year increments. The graph is like an uneven staircase, with a slow rise shown in blue, which is labeled Soil Creep (slow and steady) followed by landslides that are vertical, which are labeled Landslides (rapid and infrequent). The landslides are thousands of years apart at the beginning of the graph but around year 4,500 they become more frequent. Then around year 6,000 they appear to become less frequent again.

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Figure 5.39. Number of Types of Marine Animals from the Last 542 Million Years

Histogram of the growth of types of animals. The y-axis is labeled Number of Genera and ranges from zero (few types of organisms) to 4,500 (many types of organisms). The y-axis is marked in 500 animal increments. The x-axis is labeled Time (Millions of years ago) and ranges from 550 (long ago) to zero (now) years ago in 50 million year increments. The height of the graph appears to be at 0 zero million years ago, rising and falling but remaining under about 1,000 until 250 million years ago when the number of types of organisms falls to about 250. The number steadily rises until about 75 million years ago when it appears 2,000 different organisms are present. The graph then falls to about 1,000 different organisms and sharply rises until the present day when it appears to reach 4,000 different organisms. Below the graph is the Geologic Timescale, agreed upon by the Geological Society of America. This timeline shows the Paleozoic era from 550 million years ago to 250 million years ago; This includes from left to right: CM, O, S, D, C, and P. Then the Mesozoic era from 250 million years ago to about 60 million years ago. This era includes T, J, and K. Then the Cenozoic era from 60 million years ago to present day. This era includes Pg and N.

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Figure 5.40. The Timing of Major Extinction Events and Possible Causes

This is a complicated graphic. There are three columns labeled across the top: Extinction Intensity, Percent Extinction (genera); Impact Events Crater Diameter (km); and Periods of Major Volcanic Eruptions. The y-axis is labeled Time (Millions of Years Ago). Then there is the Geologic Timescale with the Paleozoic era at the bottom, Mesozoic in the middle, and the Cenozoic at the top. There is a numbered timescale from 550 million years ago to zero. There are 5 major extinction events shown as spikes in the first column. From the bottom up: an event happened about 450 million years ago during the Paleozoic, in which about 60% of genera became extinct. At that time in the Impact Events column there is a bar indicating that Iridium was found in rocks that formed at that time; and just before the extinction event there were some small impacts. The next major event happened about 375 million years ago during which about 55% of genera became extinct. At the same time in the Impact Events column, two bars appear under Iridium. Just before and just after the extinction event are two bars indicating that tektites were found in rock formed at that time. Around the time of this extinction event were several large impacts: Alamo, Siljan, Charlevoix, and Woodleigh, along with several smaller impacts. Also at the time of this extinction event, shown in the third column, was  the Viluy volcano eruption 350 to 377 million years ago. The third major extinction event happened about 250 million years ago in which about 80% of genera became extinct. There is no indication of Iridium or tektites in rock formed at this time and no major impacts. There were two large volcanic eruptions: Siberian (249 to 251 million years ago) and Emeishan (258 to 260 million years ago). The fourth major extinction event happened about 210 million years ago in which about 35% of genera became extinct. There is evidence that rocks formed at this time contain Iridium and there were several small to medium impacts around this time, with the largest named Manicouagan. There were also two large volcanic explosions at the same time: Karoo-Ferrar (182 to 184 million years ago) and Central Atlantic (200 to 202 million years ago). The fifth, and most recent major extinction event, happened about 60 million years ago in which about 45% of genera became extinct. At the same time, there were several small impacts, including one medium impact (Kara) and one larger impact (Chiexulub). The chart also indicates that Iridium and tektites are found in rock formed at this time. In addition there were two major volcanic eruptions near this time: Madagascar (86 to 90 million years ago) and Deccan (about 65.5 million years ago).

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Figure 5.41. Energy Transfer in a Collision

There are two panels showing what happened before and then during a collision between a skateboarder and a person standing stationary while reading a book. The first panel, before the collision, is titled System of two objects prior to a collision. It shows The Fast moving skateboarding person moving directly toward the Stationary book-reading person. The second panel is titled Model of energy flow within the system during the collision. It shows the Source Object, the skateboarding person has a decrease in kinetic energy when they collide with the Receiver Object, the book-reading person, who experiences an increase in kinetic energy.

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Figure 5.42. Energy Transfer with Friction

Figure is titled Model of Energy Flow within the system that has friction. This is a model of a toy car on a table. The source object, the car, has a decrease in kinetic energy. That energy is transferred to two receiver objects: the table and car. The table experiences an increase in thermal energy and the car experiences an increase in thermal energy.

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Figure 5.43. Interacting Galaxies Demonstrate Attraction

A photograph of two spiraling galaxies very close together.

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Figure 5.44. Kinesthetic Model of an Orbit

A stick-figure drawing of two people. One is playing the role of the Sun and the other playing the role of a planet. They are both holding on to a rope. The planet starts moving away but the pull of the rope changes the planet’s direction so that it always moves in a circle around the Sun. Both students feel the pull of “gravity” through the rope. The pull of the rope changes the planet’s direction so that it always moved in a circle around the Sun.

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Figure 5.45. Contact Forces and Noncontact Forces

Ideas about contact versus noncontact forces. There are two panels representing Incorrect and correct ideas.

Incorrect: Objects must be touching in order to apply a force. A stick figure kicks a soccer ball and it comes to rest on the grass some distance away. There is a large X behind this drawing indicating that it is incorrect. Under that is a sailboat floating in the water. There is an up arrow and down arrow. Next to that drawing is a person pushing a box forward and an arrow pushing back.

Correct: Objects can apply a force whether they are touching or not. Contact forces require interacting objects to touch. Stick figure kicks a soccer ball. A buoyant ship with an arrow up and force pushing down. A person pushing a box forward and arrow pushing back. Non-contact forces do not require objects to touch. Examples shown are gravity between the earth and moon or two magnets of opposite polarity.

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Figure 5.46. A Magnet Moving a Compass Needle

System with a magnet moving a compass needle shows a compass needle with movement indicated with the red end of the needle pointing NNE. There is a magnet close by, one end is white and the other red; the white side is closest to the compass.

Model of energy flow within the system with a magnet moving a compass needle.

Source object (compass needle) experiences a decrease in magnetic potential energy, transfers energy to the Receiver Object (compass needle), which experiences an increase in kinetic energy.

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Figure 5.47. Microscopic Views of Fossil Foraminifera from Different Rock Layers

There is a photograph of an outcrop of rock that looks like it has toppled over and the layers are slanted from the lower left to the upper right. Each layer of the rock has been expanded to show the Microscopic View of Foraminifera Species in Each Layer. The top layer has a few small species; the next layer has fewer species with some the same as the top layer; the third layer has about the same number of species with some the same as the second layer. The fourth layer has only three species; then there is a thin layer of clay where no foraminifera were preserved. The sixth, seventh, and eighth layers have the same smaller species as the fourth layer but also contain some very large species. There are people at the very bottom of the photo who are marked to show scale; they appear very tiny.

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Figure 5.48. Preliminary Student Explanation of the Clipbird Scenario

This is a photo of a page in a student’s science notebook in which the student has written.

Question

How does a change in the environment impact a population?

Claim

A change in the environment impacts a population by causing some species to thrive because the food is thriving and more species will die off because the food is gone.

Evidence—Data/observations

In the East (dry) from the 1^st season to the 4^th season the big bill population went from one to seven. In the west (wet) from the 1^st season to the 4^th season, the population of big bills stayed steady at three, the medium bills went from two to 10, and small from four(?) to eight.

Evidence—Reasoning

Since the East got drier and drier each season the only fruit that survived were the marble fruit. Because the big bill birds were the only ones who could eat them, the medium and small bills completely died off. In the west, since the climate got moister and moister, most of the marble fruits were gone, but there was still big toot fruit, that medium bills ate the easiest, so the medium bill thrived, yet all survived.

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Figure 5.49. Four Key Ideas in Natural Selection

1. Individuals in a population of organisms vary in characteristics that are inherited, which is represented by a photo of two different color salmon.
2. Organisms produce more offspring than the environment can support, represented by a photo of many baby sea turtles making their way to the ocean after hatching.
3. Individuals compete for survival and reproductive success, represented by a photo of two deer fighting with their antlers.
4. Organisms whose variations increase their ability to survive and reproduce in the current environment are most likely to pass those variations to their descendants, which is represented by a photo of a lioness with three cubs.

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Figure 5.50. Arthropod Bodies Have Similar Structures

This diagram compares Hox genes in the fruit fly and Srokalarva berthei. There are color-coded illustrations of each animal. The color-coding matches up with the gene responsible for that part of the body. Between the two illustrations is a line of genes with the color-coding key. From left to right: ANT-C: olive green = lab (the nose of each animal); forest green = pb (the part of the head with antennae; purple = Dfd (the top of the head); aqua blue = Scr (front legs); teal blue = Antp (the first section of the body). BX-C: pink = Ubx (the second section of the body); dark green = Adb-A (the main part of the body); royal blue = Abd-B (the last part of the body).

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Figure 5.51. Animals Share Similar Genetic Code for Body Segments

Evolution over time with an arrow from the top of the graphic to the bottom. Pre-Hox Gene shows a bar representing a chromosome with one pre-hox gene. Accidental duplication of pre-Hox gene and there is the same chromosome but now with two pre-Hox genes. Small mutations cause each gene to take on different functions and there is the same chromosome with two different genes on it. Additional copying and mutation shows four different Ancestral Hox Genes colored red, orange, yellow, and green. Additional copying and mutation results in seven genes red, light red, orange, yellow, light yellow, green, and light green. There is a note that reads first bilateral animal ancestor. Additional copying and mutation results in a bracket that includes starfish with 12 genes: red, light red, orange, yellow, light yellow, green, medium green, lighter green, lightest green, blue green, light blue green, and very light blue green. The starfish is bracketed with insects and clams: the insect has eight genes: red, light red, orange, yellow, light yellow, green, medium green, and light green. The clam has 11 genes: red, light red, orange, yellow, light yellow, green, medium green, lighter green, lightest green, blue green, and light blue green.

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Figure 5.52. Comparing Limb Bone Structures in Different Animals

Line drawings of seven animal limbs from the upper left clockwise: Frog, Lizard, Bird, Human, Bat, Whale, and Cat. Each of these limbs has the same parts from top to bottom: humerus, ulna, radius, and carpal. A note on the right reads: Different animals share the same number and organization of bones in their appendages.

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Figure 5.53. View of Embryo Development in Bats and Mice

Two rows of 6 photos each, with a bat embryo on the top row and a mouse embryo on the bottom row. Each photo is identified with a letter from A to F on the top row and from G to L on the bottom row. The photos are focused on a limb of each animal. The limbs each begin as a bud that then elongates and the end widens forming the wing (bat) and foot (mouse). As the embryos develop, the carpal bones become differentiated and webbed in the case of the bat and separated in the case of the mouse.

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Figure 5.54. White Shark Captures in Southern California from 1935 to 2009

A stacked bar graph showing how many and what age of sharks captured. The y-axis is labeled Number of Sharks reported; the scale ranges from 0 to 35 in 5 shark increments. The x-axis is Years from 1935 to 2010 in 5 year increments (there is a bar for each year). There is a key in the graph describing the age of the sharks. The categories are YOY (Young of the Year), Juvenile, Sub adult – adult, and unknown.

The data by year are as follows:

1. 1935 – 0 reported
2. 1936 – 1 YOY
3. 1937 – 0 reported
4. 1938 – 0 reported
5. 1939 – 0 reported
6. 1940 – 0 reported
7. 1941 – 0 reported
8. 1942 – 0 reported
9. 1943 – 0 reported
10. 1944 – 0 reported
11. 1945 – 1 YOY; 1 Juvenile
12. 1946 – 0 reported
13. 1947 – 0 reported
14. 1948  – 1 YOY
15. 1949 – 0 reported
16. 1950 – 0 reported
17. 1951 – 0 reported
18. 1952 – 0 reported
19. 1953 – 0 reported
20. 1954 – 0 reported
21. 1955 – 4 YOY, 2 Juvenile
22. 1956 – 0 reported
23. 1957 – 0 reported
24. 1958 – 0 reported
25. 1959 – 1 Juvenile, 1 unknown
26. 1960 – 1 Sub Adult – Adult
27. 1961 – 0 reported
28. 1962 – 0 reported
29. 1963 – 0 reported
30. 1964 – 0 reported
31. 1965 – 0 reported
32. 1966 – 0 reported
33. 1967 – 0 reported
34. 1968 – 0 reported
35. 1969 – 0 reported
36. 1970 – 0 reported
37. 1971 – 1 Juvenile
38. 1972 – 0 reported
39. 1973 – 0 reported
40. 1974 – 0 reported
41. 1975 – 1 YOY
42. 1976 – 2 YOY, 1 Juvenile, 1 Sub Adult-Adult
43. 1977 – 1 Juvenile
44. 1978 – 0 reported
45. 1979 – 1 Juvenile
46. 1980 – 0 reported
47. 1981 – 1 YOY, 12 unknown
48. 1982 – 2 YOY, 2 Sub Adult-Adult, 7 unknown
49. 1983 – 7 YOY, 1 Juvenile, 16 unknown
50. 1984 – 5 YOY, 2 Juvenile, 1 Sub Adult-Adult
51. 1985 – 7 YOY, 5 Juvenile, 6 Sub Adult-Adult, 12 unknown
52. 1986 – 4 Juvenile, 11 unknown
53. 1987 – 5 YOY, 5 Juvenile, 8 unknown
54. 1988 – 5 YOY, 6 Juvenile, 6 unknown
55. 1989 – 6 YOY, 6 Juvenile, 4 unknown
56. 1990 – 5 YOY, 4 Juvenile, 5 unknown
57. 1991 – 4 YOY, 1 Juvenile, 3 unknown
58. 1992 – 3 YOY, 9 Juvenile, 2 unknown
59. 1993 – 3 YOY, 1 Sub Adult-Adult
60. 1994 – 2 Juvenile, 1 Sub Adult-Adult, 6 unknown
61. 1995 - 2 Juvenile, 3 unknown
62. 1996 – 1 YOY, 1 Juvenile, 2 unknown
63. 1997 – 2 YOY, 2 Juvenile, 1 unknown
64. 1998 – 2 YOY, 2 unknown
65. 1999 – 2 unknown
66. 2000 – 5 YOY, 1 Juvenile, 2 Sub Adult-Adult, 1 unknown
67. 2001 – 3 YOY, 1 unknown
68. 2002 – 1 YOY, 2 unknown
69. 2003 – 6 YOY, 1 Juvenile, 2 unknown
70. 2004 – 2 YOY, 3 Juvenile, 2 unknown
71. 2005 – 2 YOY, 1 Juvenile, 2 unknown
72. 2006 – 14 YOY
73. 2007 – 6 YOY, 2 Juvenile
74. 2008 – 16 YOY, 3 Juvenile, 2 unknown
75. 2009 – 15 YOY, 7 Juvenile

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Figure 5.55. Model of a Typical Wave

This model shows a sine wave superimposed on a grid. The amplitude (m) of the wave is indicated as the distance between the x-axis and the peak of the wave. The wavelength (m) is indicated as the distance from one peak to the next. The frequency (1/s) is indicated with the drawing of a human eye watching the peaks. Along the bottom of the model is a horizontal arrow pointing right, indicating the Speed of the wave is in meters per second.

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Figure 5.56. Model of a Sound Wave in Air

Drawing of a speaker emitting sound in both particles and waves going toward a human ear. Below is a sine wave that matches the frequency, wavelength, and amplitude of the sound above.

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Figure 5.57. Earth-Sun System Scale

This illustration shows how sunlight hits the Earth. At the Equator, the Sun hits the Earth flat and at the poles the Sun hits the Earth more obliquely and spread out. This is showing why the Sun is more intense at the Equator than at the poles. It is also showing the scale of the Sun compared to Earth. With the Sun depicted as a tiny dot, the Earth is too small to be seen at this scale. Therefore, the illustration has zoomed into the Earth to show the way sunlight reaches different parts of the Earth.

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Figure 5.58. Digitizing a Screen Picture

This figure is comprised of three parts: “True Color” is a bar of red color of varied intensity, from very dark red to white. The second titled Color Intensity shows a bar graph that indicates the intensity of the color via the height of each bar. The highest bars are about one-fourth of the distance from the beginning, indicating a deep red. The lowest bars are about three-fourths of the distance from the beginning indicating zero red, which appears white in the True Color bar. The third component is a Digital Sampling of the True Color bar. This bar is divided into 16 sections, each representing the color at that location on the True Color bar.

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Figure 5.59. Effects of Burning Fossil Fuels

This is a flow chart. It begins with Burning Fossil Fuels at the top, this leads to More CO2 in the Atmosphere. More CO2 leads to More CO2 in the Ocean, which leads to Ocean Acidification and more H+. More CO2 in the Atmosphere also leads to Higher Air and Ocean Temperatures, which leads to Sea Level Rise and Changing Rain Patterns.

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Figure 5.60. Projected Changes to California’s Average Temperature

This figure is comprised of three color-coded heat maps of California. The color-code key is at the bottom of the figure. The key is titled Number of Days above 100 degrees Fahrenheit. The colors start on the left as light yellow indicated less than 10 days, 20 days, 30 days, 45 days, 60 days, 75 days, 90 days, 105 days, to more than 120 days on the right in dark red. The first map, Recent Past 1961 to 1979, shows more than 100 days of 100-degree readings in the southeast part of California, most indicating less than 10 days, with the Central Valley between 20 and 30 days. The second map, Future with Low Emissions 2080 to 2099, shows much more area in dark red (more than 100 days of 100 degrees), with many more scattered pockets of more than 20 days and the Central Valley between 30 and 45 days. There is a note that reads Annual Average Temperature Change +2.8 to 6.0 degrees Fahrenheit. The third map, Future with High Emissions 2080 to 2099, shows many more days of 100 degrees in the southeast and Central Valley. Northern California is showing large pockets of more than 30 days. The coastal areas change only slightly. There is a note that reads Annual Average Temperature Change +4.6 to 8.6 degrees Fahrenheit.

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